Literature Review of Gender and Stalking

Literature Review of Gender and radicalAn Introduction to Issues of Gender in Stalking ResearchStalking has been the subject of experi workforcetal examination for a little over 20 years. Inte correspondence in stalk two empirical and public has increased red-bloodedly within the at last decade (see Figure 1). A PsycINFO search of the first decade of shuck research yields only 74 hits. In contrast, the year 2000 marked an upswing of serious probe with the publication of the first special return on stubble (Frieze Davis, 2000). in that location were 56 publications on stubble in 2000 alone and over 600 publications on the offspring published in the midst of 2000 and 2010.The research on still hunt has examined predictors of perpetration, consequences of developwork forcet, and public perceptions of chaff. indoors each of these domains, one of the lingering questions has been what fibre does sex play in still hunt? Accordingly, this special issue is intended to contri excepte to the literature by employ sexual practice as a boil down point in 1) applying new suppositional perspectives to the issue of chaff perpetration (Davis, Swan, Gambone, this issue Duntley Buss, this issue), 2) extending our knowledge of wo custody and handss (Sheridan Lyndon, this issue Thompson, Dennison, Stewart, this issue) walk owns, and 3) furthering the study of perceptions of angry walk (Cass Rosay, this issue Dunlap, Hodell, Golding, Wasarhaley, this issue Sinclair, this issue Yanowitz Yanowitz, this issue).To place this special issue in context of the ongoing state of knowledge on sexual practice and husk, we will review the state of the current research on examining the role of grammatical gender with regard to still hunt victimization, perpetration, and the lay and legal perceptions of stalk. We will close down with a summary of how each of the articles included herein contribute to our knowledge about the role of gender in stal king research. However, it is important to start with clarifying what is meant by the term stalking.The model federal anti-stalking law in the US leg every(prenominal)(prenominal)y defines stalking as a course of conduct directed at a specific person that involves repeated visual or physical proximity, nonconsensual communication, or verbal, written, or implied threats, or a combination at that placeof, that would cause a reasonable person dread (National Criminal Justice Association Project, 1993, p. 43-44). Legal definitions differ crossways US states, but they tend to put up three characteristics 1) a mould or course of conduct 2) of unsought or intrusive harassing behaviors that 3) induces revere of bodily damage or substantial emotional distress in the shoot for (Spitzberg, Cupach, Ciceraro, 2010). excess terminology has been used in stalking research to discuss abdicable attention, oddly from a wild-eyed pursuer, that does not meet the dread or substantial dis tress criteria of anti-stalking laws. Alternative labels for these outcast behaviors engaged in during stake of a romantic kinship include unsuitable quest (Langhinrichsen-Rohling, Pal argona, Cohen, Rohling, 2000), pre-stalking (Emerson, Ferris, Gardner, 1998), obsessive relational onset (ORI Cupach Spitzberg, 1998, 2004), molestation, or uncalled-for courtship persistence (Sinclair Frieze, 2000).Whether gender differences whitethorn emerge, particularly in perpetration and victimization statistics, whitethorn depend on whether the researcher is examining stalking or undesired pursuit. In fact, as will be discussed throughout this paper, lots of the debate about gender differences is largely due to two variables 1) how stalking is operationalized and 2) what attempt is examined. We turn to these issues, and former(a)s, first starting with our review of the stalking victimization literature. note, our focus for the duration of this paper is on the dominant form of st alking stalking that occurs within a relational context.VictimsOne of the questions surrounding gender differences in stalking research is whether women argon a good deal(prenominal) in all probability to be victims of stalking than men. Statistics distinctly indicate that the absolute majority of stalking cases ofttimes follows the rejection of an intimate relationship (Baum et al., 2009 Spitzberg Cupach, 2007 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998). Historically, intimate enmity (e.g., domestic wildness, acquaintance rape) has been perceived as synonymous with violence against women because it was believed that the majority of intimate aggression targeted women. However, this belief that victims of intimate aggression ar disproportionately distaff has been controversial (see Archer, 2000). Likewise, we w atomic number 18 that the assertion that stalking victims be predominantly women is not without its controversy.In the first US national study of stalking victimization, Tjaden and Thoennes (1998) account that 8% of women and 1.1% of men define qualified as stalking victims when the definition was control to those who are were ut near(a)ly horror-struck. The victimization rate climbs climbed to 13% of women and 2.2% of men when roughlywhat afraid is was used. Thus, a gender difference was still quite apparent when business was a criterion. In contrast, the British Crime Survey (Budd Mattinson, 2000), which did not require both experiences of fear, reported that 4% of women and 1.7% of men were victims of persistent and unwanted attention. In a to a greater extent recent US national survey, Baum et al. (2009) ensnare that to a greater extent stalking victims were women than men when using the legal definition that includes victim fear. In contrast, no gender difference emerged in harassment victimization, which does not include the fear requirement. Further, all of these studies raise that women are to a greater extent plausibly to be stalked by a prior intimate than men, who are equally liable(predicate) to be stalked by acquaintances or intimates.When focusing on unwanted pursuits, which can include stalking, in the relational contextS studies examining unwanted pursuit have to grapple with definitional issues as well as issues of examine. Studies of unwanted pursuit and ORI are primarily conducted among American college bookmans and have lots tack few or small gender differences in range of unwanted pursuit victimization. Among US college scholarly persons, women and men who rejected a romantic relationship did not differ in their reports of experiencing unwanted pursuit behaviors, such as avocation and threats of physical assault (e.g., Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000 Phillips et al., 2004 Sinclair Frieze, 2000 Spitzberg, Nicastro, Cousins, 1998). When differences are found, they may be negligible.Overall, Spitzberg et al.s (2010) latest meta-analysis of US college students who experienced persistent pu rsuit found that women were 55% much apparent to have been pursued than men. Comparing these statistics with national statistics which find women 3-7 times to a greater extent likely to be stalked, a difference of .55 seems minimal. Clearly how one concludes whether fewone is a victim of stalking depends not only on how one asks the question (requiring fear or not) but who one is asking (college sample vs. national sample). Yet, it seems safe to conclude that women do outnumber men when it go ins to victimization rates.To Fear or Not to FearWhere consistent gender differences have been found is that women are more likely to view unwanted pursuit as threatening (Cupach Spitzberg, 2000 Spitzberg et al., 2010). The inclusion of fear appears to decrease preponderance rates for men, as men are less likely to report fear than are women (Bjerregaard, 2000 Cupach Spitzberg, 2000 Davis, Ace, Andra, 2000 Emerson et al., 1998 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a). This difference in reports of fear could be due to men actually not feeling afraid, only reporting they are not afraid, or experiencing less severe stalking behavior. It is difficult to break down the true reason. In cosmopolitan, men appear less willing to report fear due to well-disposedly desirable responding (Sutton Farrall, 2005) and men discount their risk of victimization (Stanko Hobdell, 1993). Also, Mmany male victims of stalking do not perceive any threat from their pursuers and so do not identify their experience as stalking (Tjaden, Thoennes, Allison, 2000 Sheridan, et al., 2002). manful victims of interpersonal violence report they are more likely to react with joke than are women (Romito Grassi, 2007) and men discount their risk of victimization (Stanko Hobdell, 1993). Likewise, Emerson, Ferris, and Gardners (1998) US confederacy sample of victims revealed that men felt less vulnerable and threatened than did women. Men who do seek security system from their ex-girlfriends may experience in formal hearty sanctions (Hall, 1998) and be treated with contempt or laughter by legal passkeys (Purcell, raceway, Mullen, 2001). Accordingly, near have argued that the laws emphasis on fear reduces male prevalence rates (Tjaden et al., 2000) and may leave alone people to discount male victims who may actually pauperisation assistance from law enforcement (Baum et. al, 2009 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998).Emphasizing fear in stalking definitions may in like manner affect womens reporting of intimate partner stalking. Stalking targeting women is primarily perpetrated by intimates (Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a), but women are paradoxically more afraid of strangers (Pain, 1996). For example, Dietz and Martin (2007) found that women were more afraid of strangers than of boyfriends. Also, Dunn (1999) demonstrated how a group of sorority women reported that they would feel anxious if a man suddenly showed up at their doorstep, but found it romantic and flattering if he showed up with flowers peculiarly when he was . The women also felt more flattered byan ex-partner, s than byrather than a casual dates engaging in the same behaviors. Women may gum olibanum be more likely than men to minimize unwanted pursuit when it can be interpreted as romantic (Dunn, 1999 Emerson et al., 1998 Lee, 1998), maculation men may be more dismissive in general. Frequency counts of stalking thus may not tell the whole story of stalking victimization. For example, general population samples in the UK and the US (Budd Mattinson, 2000 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a) find that women are victims of intimate partner stalking, trance men are equally likely to be stalked by partners and acquaintances (exception Purcell et al.s, 2001 Australian clinical sample) so while it is true that intimate partner stalking is the most prevalent type, there are somewhat differential experiences for women and men.Consequences copeEven if it is the case that men and women may be targeted in equal poem by unwanted pu rsuit behaviors (Bjerregaard, 2000 Haugaard Seri, 2004 Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000 Spitzberg et al., 1998), there are differences in the clashing of that unwanted attention. Stalking victims report a wide range of negative consequences, including psychological health problems (e.g., depression, anxiety, PTSD symptomotology), physical health problems (e.g., disturbances in appetite and sleep, headaches, nausea, and damage from the perpetrator), economic losses (e.g., spending money on protective efforts, lost wages, and expenses), and social losses (e.g., losing touch with friends, getting unlisted phone numbers, reducing social activities) (see Bjerregaard, 2000 Centers for Disease Control, 2003 Davis et al., 2002 Dressing, Kuehner, Gass, 2005 Kamphuis Emmelkamp, 2001 rails Mullen, 1997 Sheridan, Davies, Boon, 2001). Even if it is the case that men and women may be targeted in equal numbers by unwanted pursuit behaviors (Bjerregaard, 2000 Haugaard Seri, 2004 Langhin richsen-Rohling et al., 2000 Spitzberg et al., 1998), there are differences in the mend of that unwanted attention. Of these consequences, Davis et al. (2000) found that In addition to finding that womanly person stalking victims had a higher(prenominal) risk of physical and mental health problems than male victims. Further,, once again highlighting the importance of fear, Davis et al. (2000) found that greater fear was associated with greater health problems for women, but not for men. Also, Bjerregaard (2000) found that effeminate victims of stalking were more likely to have been physically harmed by their stalker than were male victims, and reported greater impact on their emotional health. It may seem as if one could draw the remainder that women suffer greater health consequences (Jordan, 2009), but this conclusion is not without its exceptions (Pimlott-Kubiak Cortina, 2003 Wigman, 2009) Stalking is also comorbid with physical, sexual, and psychological abuse female stalki ng victims experience (Brewster, 2003 Coleman, 1997 Jordan, Wilcox, Pritchard, 2007 Logan, Leukefeld, Walker, 2000 Mechanic, Uhlmansick, Weaver, Resick, 2000 Spitzberg Rhea, 1999 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998). Among battered women, Mechanic and colleagues (Mechanic et al., 2000 Mechanic et al., 2002) have found that experiencing stalking contributes to higher levels of depression, fear, and post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) than physical abuse alone. inflection NEEDED. Stalking victims take a variety of steps to protect themselves, including confronting the stalker (or having a triad party do so), changing their home, indoctrinate, or workplace, or desire a protection order (Path Mullen, 1997 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a). approximately of the most common coping tactical maneuver for stalking victims involve a passive strategy, with tactics like ignoring or otherwise minimizing the problem (college students, Amar Alexy, 2010, Cupach Spitzberg, 2000 Fremouw et al., 1997 Jason, R eichler, Easton, Neal, Wilson, 1984, self-identified victims in a Dutch community Kamphpuis, Emmelkamp, Bartak, 2003). Women are more likely than men to seek help in general. In particular, women are more likely than men to seek counseling and to file a protection order (Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a), and to take more security precautions, including avoiding people or places (Budd Mattinson, 2000), and to give away in a close friend or family member for help (Spitzberg et al., 1998). In their study on unwanted pursuit in US college students, Cupach and Spitzberg (2000) found that women reported more interaction (e.g., yelled at the person), and protection (e.g., called the police), and less avenging (e.g., threatened physical harm) than men. two genders coped using evasion (e.g., ignored them). However, while men and women had different help-seeking simulates, the differences themselves were very small (Cupach Spitzberg, 2000 Spitzberg, 2002).In sum, gender differences emerge in more severe experiences, which usually involve a legally-defined fearful victim found in general population samples and those drawn from clinical or rhetorical populations (Baum, Catalano, Rand, Rose, 2009 Bjerregaard, 2000 Sheridan, Gillett, Davies, 2002 vs. Sheridan, Davies, Boon, 2001 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998). In contrast, studies employing college student samples that use a non-fear based definition often do not find such gender differences (Cupach Spitzberg, 1998, 2000 Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000 Phillips et al., 2004 Purcell, Path, Mullen, 2002). Meta-analyses have shown that clinical and forensic samples do have higher prevalence rates than student or community samples clinical and forensic samples also reveal a stronger pattern of male perpetrators and female victims (Spitzberg, 2002 Spitzberg Cupach, 2007 Spitzberg, Cupach, Ciceraro, 2010). We may conclude that there are purposeful gender differences in the experience of stalking, but some of these differenc es may be minimal (Spitzberg et al., 2010).PerpetratorsWhen it comes to examining gender differences in stalking perpetration, we are confronted with some of the same issues. It makes a difference whether we are examining stalking or, more broadly, unwanted pursuit behaviors. It also matters which sample is being examined. However, gender differences in rates of perpetration seem easier to come by. The issue of whether men stalk more than women is subject to one of the problems that drive questions of victimization which samples we study. The issue of whether stalking is operationalized using the requirement that victims feel fear is trickier. We buzzword use the same standard with perpetrators, who may not be able or willing to convey whether their victim was fearful. While we may assume that self-asserting stalking behaviors like vandalism, threats, and physical harm are more severe than show up unexpectedly or repeated phone calls, the meaning and impact of these behaviors may be similar. Depending upon the context of the behavior, even excessive declarations of love may lead to probable cause for fear (Emerson et al. 1998). However, as with victimization studies, males and females in some college student samples report no gender differences in engaging in unwanted pursuit behaviors toward an intimate partner (Cupach Spitzberg, 2000 Dutton Winstead, 2006 Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000 Sinclair Frieze, 2000). For example, Baum et al.s (2009) found in the data from a US national US survey revealed that approximately 60% of stalkers were male, 28% were female, and the rest were unable to be identified by their victim. Overall, Spitzberg and Cupachs (2003) meta-analysis found that males make up 82% of stalkers, while females represent 18% of stalkers. HoweverIn sum, the most recent meta-analysis of stalking and unwanted pursuit found that 23.90% of men have perpetrated stalking behavior, while compared to 11.92% of women did so (Spitzberg Cupach, 20 10).However, as with victimization studies, some college student surveys reveal no gender differences in engaging in unwanted pursuit behaviors toward an intimate partner (Cupach Spitzberg, 2000 Dutton Winstead, 2006 Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000 Sinclair Frieze, 2000). College students ofttimes report engaging in unwanted pursuit behaviors, with up to 99% doing at least one (Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000 Sinclair Frieze, 2000). Between 30 and 36% of Davis et al.s (2000) US college student sample reported engaging in one to five dollar bill acts, and 7 to 10% reported six or more. The most frequent behaviors are diverse forms of unwanted communication and showing up at work/home/school. high-pressure pursuit behaviors are more infrequent (Davis et al., 2000 Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000). In general, unwanted pursuit perpetration in college students involves similar numbers of male and female perpetrators, while stalking among general or clinical populations is predominantly perpetrated by men (Allen, Swan, Raghavan, 2009 Baum et al., 2009 Budd Mattinson, 2000 Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a).This pattern parallels the findings regarding dating and domestic violence perpetration. Like the pattern betwixt unwanted pursuit and stalking, dating violence and domestic violence involve similar behaviors with differing prevalence rates, predictors of perpetration, and consequences for women and men (Archer, 2000 Bookwala, Frieze, Smith, Ryan, 1992). In this sense, less severe levels of unwanted pursuit or harassment may mirror Johnsons (1995) category of common couple violence, while more severe levels of stalking equal intimate terrorism (Johnson Ferraro, 2000). The debate of whether gender shapes the experience of IPV leads to research comparing the quantity of male and female victims and perpetrators, but also whether experiences are qualitatively different. In other words, are there gender differences in w ho perpetrators stalk their choice of stalking behaviors, and their motivations?Types of BehaviorsThere is some evidence that women and men engage in slightly different individual stalking behaviors. In both forensic and college student samples in the US and Australia, men are more likely to make in-person contact (e.g., approach behavior Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000 Sinclair Frieze, 2000), to follow their victims or loiter (Purcell et al., 2001 Purcell et al., 2010), and to inflict property damage (Purcell et al., 2010). Women, on the other hand, are more likely to engage in behaviors that do not confront the target face-to-face, such as making unwanted calls or leaving unwanted phone messages (Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000 Purcell et al., 2001 Purcell et al., 2010), spreading rumors, or employing others in harassing the victim (Purcell et al., 2010). These patterns are not universal, however, as Dutton and Winstead (2006)s US college student sample found that women r eported more observe and physically hurting their targets than men.In terms of cyberstalking behaviors,. Burke, Wallen, Vail-Smith, and Knox (2011) found that US college student men were more likely than women to report experiencing and engaging in the use of spyware, photos, and cameras to oversee and pursue their partner (e.g., using GPS devices, web cams, and spyware to monitor their partner). In contrast, college student women were more likely to report excessive communication and checking behaviors (e.g., checking cell phone and netmail histories, making excessive phone calls and e-mails, checking social networking sites, and using their partners passwords).. However, in a study on pursuit behaviors perpetrated on Facebook, Lyndon, Bonds-Raacke, and Cratty (in press) found no gender differences in US college students in the three types of behaviors people perpetrated on Facebook to harass their ex-partner covert exhortation (20-54% e.g., post poetry or lyrics in status upda tes to taunt ex-partner), give vent (7-11% e.g., write inappropriate or mean things about ex-partner on Facebook), and public harassment (3-10% e.g., create a false Facebook profile of ex-partner). Thus far the ambiguity about whether gender differences exist in cyberpursuit appears to mirror the findings regarding unwanted pursuit behaviors for women and men, but we need more research on using technology to stalkcyberstalking, especially with perpetrators.One of the most pressing questions regarding stalking is when it might escalate into physically crimson behaviors. Most stalkers, however, are not raging (Purcell, Path, Mullen, 2004 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a) half of all stalking cases involve a threat and proficient under a three of all stalking cases involve physical violence. Both male and female stalkers are more likely to be violent if they are an ex-intimate, are jr. than 30 years of age, have less than a high school education, and have made prior threats (Rosenfeld H armon, 2002). Other predictors of stalking-related violence include prior savage convictions (Mullen et al., 1999 Palrea, Zona, Lane, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 1999). Most stalkers, however, are not violent (Purcell, Path, Mullen, 2004 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a) half of all stalking cases involve a threat and just under a third of all stalking cases involve physical violence. designate is mixed as to whether there are gender differences in those who are likely to become violent. around research using US college student samples argue that female unwanted pursuit perpetrators of unwanted pursuit engage in more piano hard-hitting stalking behaviors than men (Dutton Winstead, 2006 Williams Frieze, 2005). However, other college student samples reveal no gender differences in perpetration of stalking violence (Haugaard Seri, 2004 Sinclair Frieze, 2002). StillIn contrast, others find that men are more likely than women to threaten their victims (Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000) a nd to escalate from threats to physical assaults, as reported in both Australian forensic samples (Purcell et al., 2001) and meta-analyses (Spitzberg Cupach, 2007). Former romantic partnersEx-intimate stalkers, who are mostly male, are the most violent compared to other categories of stalkers, a pattern that is consistent across culture and sample type (McEwan, Mullen, MacKenzie, Ogloff, 2009 Meloy, Davis, Lovette, 2001 Mohandie, Meloy, McGowan, Williams, 2006 Palrea, Zona, Lane, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 1999 Sheridan, Blaauw, Davies, 2003 Sheridan Davies, 2001). Given that men are more likely to stalk ex-intimate partners than women (Spitzberg Cupach, 2007 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998), it seems that we should find more male-perpetrated stalking violence.However, other college student samples and forensic samples reveal no gender differences in perpetration of stalking violence (Haugaard Seri, 2004 Sinclair Frieze, 2002). HoweverFor example, current evidence with forensic sample s shows no gender differences in actual stalking cases regarding stalker lethality (Mullen et al., 1999 Purcell et al., 2001 Rosenfeld Lewis, 2005). Specifically, both male and female stalkers can turn violent if they are an ex-intimate, are younger than 30 years of age, have less than a high school education, and have made prior threats (Rosenfeld Harmon, 2002). Evidently, more research is unavoidable to sort out whether gender is a useful predictor of extreme stalking and violence.Motivations and ViolenceWhile there are some differences in how men and women pursue, there also may be some differences in their motivations for doing so. Victims in general population studies often attribute the stalkers motivation to attempts to keep them in a relationship, as well as a desire to control the them (Budd Mattinson, 2000 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a). Mullen and colleagues (1999) have classified their samples of clinical and forensic stalkers in Australia into five motivation groups rejec ted, closeness-seeker, incompetent suitor, resentful, and esurient types, but have not found consistent gender differences between the groups. Stalking behaviors appear to be cause most commonly by intimacy (e.g., a desire for propitiation and feelings of love), with the second most common demand being aggression retaliation (e.g., a desire for penalise Spitzberg Cupach, 2007). In fact, perpetrators often report both motives for reconciliation of a relationship and for revenge (Mullen, Path, Purcell, Stuart, 1999 Spitzberg Cupach, 2007). These Cclinical/forensic rejected stalkers who are motivated by a mix of reconciliation and revenge needs have a higher likelihood of assaulting their victims than other motivation groups (Mullen et al., 2006).Gender differences in motivations for stalking have been noted in fresh forensic samples. Juvenile female stalkers more likely to be motivated by bullying and retaliation whereas juvenile male stalkers were have been found to be moti vated more by rejection and sexual predation (Purcell et al., 2010). In a 2001 study of adult stalkers in Australia, Purcell and colleagues found that women were more likely to target professional acquaintances and less likely to target strangers than men. Nonetheless, the majority of female stalkers were still all the way motivated by the desire to pee-pee intimacy with their target, whereas mens motivations were diverse, spreading across the five categories. Likewise, in Meloys (2003) study of 82 female stalkers from the US, Canada, and Australia, he found the female stalkers were more likely to be motivated by a desire to establish intimacy, whereas men were known to stalk to restore intimacy. Ultimately, Tthere is a large faulting in stalking motivation research, particularly using non-forensic samples.Clinical/forensic rejected stalkers who are motivated by a mix of reconciliation and revenge needs have a higher likelihood of assaulting their victims than other motivation gr oups (Mullen et al., 2006). Both male and female stalkers are more likely to be violent if they are an ex-intimate, are younger than 30 years of age, have less than a high school education, and have made prior threats (Rosenfeld Harmon, 2002). Other predictors of stalking-related violence include prior criminal convictions (Mullen et al., 1999 Palrea, Zona, Lane, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 1999). Most stalkers, however, are not violent (Purcell, Path, Mullen, 2004 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a) half of all stalking cases involve a threat and just under a third of all stalking cases involve physical violence.Evidence is mixed as to whether there are gender differences in those who are likely to become violent. Some research using US college student samples suggest that female unwanted pursuit perpetrators engage in more mild aggressive stalking behaviors (Dutton Winstead, 2006 Williams Frieze, 2005). However, other college student samples reveal no gender differences in perpetration of s talking violence (Haugaard Seri, 2004 Sinclair Frieze, 2002). Still others find that men are more likely than women to threaten their victims (Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000) and to escalate from threats to physical assaults, as reported in both Australian forensic samples (Purcell et al., 2001) and meta-analyses (Spitzberg Cupach, 2007). Former romantic partners are the most violent compared to other categories of stalkers, a pattern that is consistent across culture and sample type (McEwan, Mullen, MacKenzie, Ogloff, 2009 Meloy, Davis, Lovette, 2001 Mohandie, Meloy, McGowan, Williams, 2006 Palrea, Zona, Lane, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 1999 Sheridan, Blaauw, Davies, 2003 Sheridan Davies, 2001). Given that men are more likely to stalk ex-intimate partners than women (Spitzberg Cupach, 2007 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998), it seems that we should find more male-perpetrated stalking violence. However, current evidence with forensic samples shows no gender differences in actual st alking cases regarding stalker lethality (Mullen et al., 1999 Purcell et al., 2001 Rosenfeld Lewis, 2005).Single surveys of Ccollege student samples ofabout unwanted pursuit and obsessive relational intrusion are the least likely to find fewgender differences in perpetration rates. However, meta-analyses and US and UK general population studies find that men are more likely to be stalking perpetrators than women, regardless of the victims gender (Baum et al., 2009 Budd Mattinson, 2000 Spitzberg, 2002 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a).While the surface of this gender difference varies, it is consistent across methodologies (Spitzberg Cupach, 2003). There are some gender differences in the types of stalking and cyberstalking perpetrationbehaviors e.g., men being more direct and women more indirect and in pursuers motives women being predominantly motivated by intimacy-seeking and men having a broader array of motives. However, we need more research on perpetration to snap off understan d if gender is an important predictor to consider, especially with regard to the likelihood of escalation. with a variety of samples and with better means of differentiating unwanted pursuit from stalking.Perceptions of stalkingAs attention to the problem of stalking has increased, so has public opinion been shaped. However, there is not a true consensus in these opinions. Rather, people vary in how much they understand about stalking. It can be unclear when the line between normal relational pursuit and stalking is crossed (Dunn, 1999 Emerson et al., 1998 Lee, 1998 Sinclair Frieze, 2000, 2005). Perceptions can also motley regarding multiple issues including 1) which behaviors qualify as stalking, 2) how many behavior are exuberant to represent a course of conduct, 3) is stalking genuinelyly serious, 4) what perpetrator intent may have been, 5) whether and how we should incorporate victim fear levels to judge stalking severity, and 6) what is real stalking (e.g., stranger vs. ac quaintance stalking). Within each of these issues, gender may stoop the perceptions people hold, both lay persons and legal decision-makers.Stalking in the nerve of the Beholder The Role of Perceiver GenderThe literature is still mixed as to whether men and women differ in judgments to use a label of stalking. Some researchers report that men and women do not differ in terms of which behaviors qualify as stalking (e.g., Kinkade, Burns, Fuentes, 2005 Phillips et al., 2004, in Experiment 1 Sheridan Davies, 2001 Sheridan, Davies, Boon, 2001 Sheridan et al., 2002 Sheridan, Gillet, Davies, Blaauw, Patel, 2003). Others have foundLiterature Review of Gender and StalkingLiterature Review of Gender and StalkingAn Introduction to Issues of Gender in Stalking ResearchStalking has been the subject of empirical examination for a little over 20 years. Interest in stalking both empirical and public has increased substantially within the last decade (see Figure 1). A PsycINFO search of the first decade of stalking research yields only 74 hits. In contrast, the year 2000 marked an upswing of serious investigation with the publication of the first special issue on stalking (Frieze Davis, 2000). There were 56 publications on stalking in 2000 alone and over 600 publications on the topic published between 2000 and 2010.The research on stalking has examined predictors of perpetration, consequences of victimization, and public perceptions of stalking. Within each of these domains, one of the lingering questions has been what role does gender play in stalking? Accordingly, this special issue is intended to contribute to the literature by using gender as a focus point in 1) applying new theoretical perspectives to the study of stalking perpetration (Davis, Swan, Gambone, this issue Duntley Buss, this issue), 2) extending our knowledge of women and mens (Sheridan Lyndon, this issue Thompson, Dennison, Stewart, this issue) stalking experiences, and 3) furthering the study o f perceptions of stalking (Cass Rosay, this issue Dunlap, Hodell, Golding, Wasarhaley, this issue Sinclair, this issue Yanowitz Yanowitz, this issue).To place this special issue in context of the current state of knowledge on gender and stalking, we will review the state of the current research on examining the role of gender with regard to stalking victimization, perpetration, and the lay and legal perceptions of stalking. We will conclude with a summary of how each of the articles included herein contribute to our knowledge about the role of gender in stalking research. However, it is important to start with clarifying what is meant by the term stalking.The model federal anti-stalking law in the US legally defines stalking as a course of conduct directed at a specific person that involves repeated visual or physical proximity, nonconsensual communication, or verbal, written, or implied threats, or a combination thereof, that would cause a reasonable person fear (National Crimin al Justice Association Project, 1993, p. 43-44). Legal definitions differ across US states, but they tend to have three characteristics 1) a pattern or course of conduct 2) of unwanted or intrusive harassing behaviors that 3) induces fear of bodily harm or substantial emotional distress in the target (Spitzberg, Cupach, Ciceraro, 2010). Additional terminology has been used in stalking research to discuss unwanted attention, particularly from a romantic pursuer, that does not meet the fear or substantial distress criteria of anti-stalking laws. Alternative labels for these unwanted behaviors engaged in during pursuit of a romantic relationship include unwanted pursuit (Langhinrichsen-Rohling, Palarea, Cohen, Rohling, 2000), pre-stalking (Emerson, Ferris, Gardner, 1998), obsessive relational intrusion (ORI Cupach Spitzberg, 1998, 2004), harassment, or unwanted courtship persistence (Sinclair Frieze, 2000).Whether gender differences may emerge, particularly in perpetration and vic timization statistics, may depend on whether the researcher is examining stalking or unwanted pursuit. In fact, as will be discussed throughout this paper, much of the debate about gender differences is largely due to two variables 1) how stalking is operationalized and 2) what sample is examined. We turn to these issues, and others, first starting with our review of the stalking victimization literature. Note, our focus for the duration of this paper is on the dominant form of stalking stalking that occurs within a relational context.VictimsOne of the questions surrounding gender differences in stalking research is whether women are more likely to be victims of stalking than men. Statistics clearly indicate that the majority of stalking cases often follows the rejection of an intimate relationship (Baum et al., 2009 Spitzberg Cupach, 2007 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998). Historically, intimate aggression (e.g., domestic violence, acquaintance rape) has been perceived as synonymous with vi olence against women because it was believed that the majority of intimate aggression targeted women. However, this belief that victims of intimate aggression are disproportionately female has been controversial (see Archer, 2000). Likewise, we find that the assertion that stalking victims are predominantly women is not without its controversy.In the first US national study of stalking victimization, Tjaden and Thoennes (1998) reported that 8% of women and 1.1% of men qualify qualified as stalking victims when the definition was limited to those who are were extremely afraid. The victimization rate climbs climbed to 13% of women and 2.2% of men when somewhat afraid is was used. Thus, a gender difference was still quite apparent when fear was a criterion. In contrast, the British Crime Survey (Budd Mattinson, 2000), which did not require any experiences of fear, reported that 4% of women and 1.7% of men were victims of persistent and unwanted attention. In a more recent US national survey, Baum et al. (2009) found that more stalking victims were women than men when using the legal definition that includes victim fear. In contrast, no gender difference emerged in harassment victimization, which does not include the fear requirement. Further, all of these studies show that women are more likely to be stalked by a prior intimate than men, who are equally likely to be stalked by acquaintances or intimates.When focusing on unwanted pursuits, which can include stalking, in the relational contextS studies examining unwanted pursuit have to grapple with definitional issues as well as issues of sample. Studies of unwanted pursuit and ORI are primarily conducted among American college students and have often found few or small gender differences in rates of unwanted pursuit victimization. Among US college students, women and men who rejected a romantic relationship did not differ in their reports of experiencing unwanted pursuit behaviors, such as following and threats of physical assault (e.g., Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000 Phillips et al., 2004 Sinclair Frieze, 2000 Spitzberg, Nicastro, Cousins, 1998). When differences are found, they may be minimal.Overall, Spitzberg et al.s (2010) latest meta-analysis of US college students who experienced persistent pursuit found that women were 55% more likely to have been pursued than men. Comparing these statistics with national statistics which find women 3-7 times more likely to be stalked, a difference of .55 seems minimal. Clearly how one concludes whether someone is a victim of stalking depends not only on how one asks the question (requiring fear or not) but who one is asking (college sample vs. national sample). Yet, it seems safe to conclude that women do outnumber men when it comes to victimization rates.To Fear or Not to FearWhere consistent gender differences have been found is that women are more likely to view unwanted pursuit as threatening (Cupach Spitzberg, 2000 Spitzberg et al., 2 010). The inclusion of fear appears to decrease prevalence rates for men, as men are less likely to report fear than are women (Bjerregaard, 2000 Cupach Spitzberg, 2000 Davis, Ace, Andra, 2000 Emerson et al., 1998 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a). This difference in reports of fear could be due to men actually not feeling afraid, only reporting they are not afraid, or experiencing less severe stalking behavior. It is difficult to parse the true reason. In general, men appear less willing to report fear due to socially desirable responding (Sutton Farrall, 2005) and men discount their risk of victimization (Stanko Hobdell, 1993). Also, Mmany male victims of stalking do not perceive any threat from their pursuers and therefore do not identify their experience as stalking (Tjaden, Thoennes, Allison, 2000 Sheridan, et al., 2002). Male victims of interpersonal violence report they are more likely to react with laughter than are women (Romito Grassi, 2007) and men discount their risk of vic timization (Stanko Hobdell, 1993). Likewise, Emerson, Ferris, and Gardners (1998) US community sample of victims revealed that men felt less vulnerable and threatened than did women. Men who do seek protection from their ex-girlfriends may experience informal social sanctions (Hall, 1998) and be treated with contempt or laughter by legal professionals (Purcell, Path, Mullen, 2001). Accordingly, some have argued that the laws emphasis on fear reduces male prevalence rates (Tjaden et al., 2000) and may lead people to discount male victims who may actually need assistance from law enforcement (Baum et. al, 2009 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998).Emphasizing fear in stalking definitions may also affect womens reporting of intimate partner stalking. Stalking targeting women is primarily perpetrated by intimates (Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a), but women are paradoxically more afraid of strangers (Pain, 1996). For example, Dietz and Martin (2007) found that women were more afraid of strangers than of bo yfriends. Also, Dunn (1999) demonstrated how a group of sorority women reported that they would feel anxious if a man suddenly showed up at their doorstep, but found it romantic and flattering if he showed up with flowers especially when he was . The women also felt more flattered byan ex-partner, s than byrather than a casual dates engaging in the same behaviors. Women may thus be more likely than men to minimize unwanted pursuit when it can be interpreted as romantic (Dunn, 1999 Emerson et al., 1998 Lee, 1998), while men may be more dismissive in general. Frequency counts of stalking thus may not tell the whole story of stalking victimization. For example, general population samples in the UK and the US (Budd Mattinson, 2000 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a) find that women are victims of intimate partner stalking, while men are equally likely to be stalked by partners and acquaintances (exception Purcell et al.s, 2001 Australian clinical sample) so while it is true that intimate partner stalking is the most prevalent type, there are somewhat differential experiences for women and men.Consequences CopingEven if it is the case that men and women may be targeted in equal numbers by unwanted pursuit behaviors (Bjerregaard, 2000 Haugaard Seri, 2004 Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000 Spitzberg et al., 1998), there are differences in the impact of that unwanted attention. Stalking victims report a wide range of negative consequences, including psychological health problems (e.g., depression, anxiety, PTSD symptomotology), physical health problems (e.g., disturbances in appetite and sleep, headaches, nausea, and damage from the perpetrator), economic losses (e.g., spending money on protective efforts, lost wages, and expenses), and social losses (e.g., losing touch with friends, getting unlisted phone numbers, reducing social activities) (see Bjerregaard, 2000 Centers for Disease Control, 2003 Davis et al., 2002 Dressing, Kuehner, Gass, 2005 Kamphuis Emmelkamp, 2001 P ath Mullen, 1997 Sheridan, Davies, Boon, 2001). Even if it is the case that men and women may be targeted in equal numbers by unwanted pursuit behaviors (Bjerregaard, 2000 Haugaard Seri, 2004 Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000 Spitzberg et al., 1998), there are differences in the impact of that unwanted attention. Of these consequences, Davis et al. (2000) found that In addition to finding that female stalking victims had a higher risk of physical and mental health problems than male victims. Further,, once again highlighting the importance of fear, Davis et al. (2000) found that greater fear was associated with greater health problems for women, but not for men. Also, Bjerregaard (2000) found that female victims of stalking were more likely to have been physically harmed by their stalker than were male victims, and reported greater impact on their emotional health. It may seem as if one could draw the conclusion that women suffer greater health consequences (Jordan, 2009), but this conclusion is not without its exceptions (Pimlott-Kubiak Cortina, 2003 Wigman, 2009) Stalking is also comorbid with physical, sexual, and psychological abuse female stalking victims experience (Brewster, 2003 Coleman, 1997 Jordan, Wilcox, Pritchard, 2007 Logan, Leukefeld, Walker, 2000 Mechanic, Uhlmansick, Weaver, Resick, 2000 Spitzberg Rhea, 1999 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998). Among battered women, Mechanic and colleagues (Mechanic et al., 2000 Mechanic et al., 2002) have found that experiencing stalking contributes to higher levels of depression, fear, and post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) than physical abuse alone.TRANSITION NEEDED. Stalking victims take a variety of steps to protect themselves, including confronting the stalker (or having a third party do so), changing their home, school, or workplace, or seeking a protection order (Path Mullen, 1997 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a). Some of the most common coping tactics for stalking victims involve a passive strategy, with ta ctics like ignoring or otherwise minimizing the problem (college students, Amar Alexy, 2010, Cupach Spitzberg, 2000 Fremouw et al., 1997 Jason, Reichler, Easton, Neal, Wilson, 1984, self-identified victims in a Dutch community Kamphpuis, Emmelkamp, Bartak, 2003). Women are more likely than men to seek help in general. In particular, women are more likely than men to seek counseling and to file a protection order (Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a), and to take more security precautions, including avoiding people or places (Budd Mattinson, 2000), and to confide in a close friend or family member for help (Spitzberg et al., 1998). In their study on unwanted pursuit in US college students, Cupach and Spitzberg (2000) found that women reported more interaction (e.g., yelled at the person), and protection (e.g., called the police), and less retaliation (e.g., threatened physical harm) than men. Both genders coped using evasion (e.g., ignored them). However, while men and women had different h elp-seeking patterns, the differences themselves were very small (Cupach Spitzberg, 2000 Spitzberg, 2002).In sum, gender differences emerge in more severe experiences, which usually involve a legally-defined fearful victim found in general population samples and those drawn from clinical or forensic populations (Baum, Catalano, Rand, Rose, 2009 Bjerregaard, 2000 Sheridan, Gillett, Davies, 2002 vs. Sheridan, Davies, Boon, 2001 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998). In contrast, studies employing college student samples that use a non-fear based definition often do not find such gender differences (Cupach Spitzberg, 1998, 2000 Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000 Phillips et al., 2004 Purcell, Path, Mullen, 2002). Meta-analyses have shown that clinical and forensic samples do have higher prevalence rates than student or community samples clinical and forensic samples also reveal a stronger pattern of male perpetrators and female victims (Spitzberg, 2002 Spitzberg Cupach, 2007 Spitzberg, Cupac h, Ciceraro, 2010). We may conclude that there are meaningful gender differences in the experience of stalking, but some of these differences may be minimal (Spitzberg et al., 2010).PerpetratorsWhen it comes to examining gender differences in stalking perpetration, we are confronted with some of the same issues. It makes a difference whether we are examining stalking or, more broadly, unwanted pursuit behaviors. It also matters which sample is being examined. However, gender differences in rates of perpetration seem easier to come by. The issue of whether men stalk more than women is subject to one of the problems that drive questions of victimization which samples we study. The issue of whether stalking is operationalized using the requirement that victims feel fear is trickier. We cant use the same standard with perpetrators, who may not be able or willing to convey whether their victim was fearful. While we may assume that aggressive stalking behaviors like vandalism, threats, a nd physical harm are more severe than showing up unexpectedly or repeated phone calls, the meaning and impact of these behaviors may be similar. Depending upon the context of the behavior, even excessive declarations of love may lead to probable cause for fear (Emerson et al. 1998). However, as with victimization studies, males and females in some college student samples report no gender differences in engaging in unwanted pursuit behaviors toward an intimate partner (Cupach Spitzberg, 2000 Dutton Winstead, 2006 Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000 Sinclair Frieze, 2000). For example, Baum et al.s (2009) found in the data from a US national US survey revealed that approximately 60% of stalkers were male, 28% were female, and the rest were unable to be identified by their victim. Overall, Spitzberg and Cupachs (2003) meta-analysis found that males make up 82% of stalkers, while females represent 18% of stalkers. HoweverIn sum, the most recent meta-analysis of stalking and unwanted pursuit found that 23.90% of men have perpetrated stalking behavior, while compared to 11.92% of women did so (Spitzberg Cupach, 2010).However, as with victimization studies, some college student surveys reveal no gender differences in engaging in unwanted pursuit behaviors toward an intimate partner (Cupach Spitzberg, 2000 Dutton Winstead, 2006 Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000 Sinclair Frieze, 2000). College students frequently report engaging in unwanted pursuit behaviors, with up to 99% doing at least one (Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000 Sinclair Frieze, 2000). Between 30 and 36% of Davis et al.s (2000) US college student sample reported engaging in one to five acts, and 7 to 10% reported six or more. The most frequent behaviors are various forms of unwanted communication and showing up at work/home/school. Aggressive pursuit behaviors are more infrequent (Davis et al., 2000 Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000). In general, unwanted pursuit perpetration in college stu dents involves similar numbers of male and female perpetrators, while stalking among general or clinical populations is predominantly perpetrated by men (Allen, Swan, Raghavan, 2009 Baum et al., 2009 Budd Mattinson, 2000 Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a).This pattern parallels the findings regarding dating and domestic violence perpetration. Like the pattern between unwanted pursuit and stalking, dating violence and domestic violence involve similar behaviors with differing prevalence rates, predictors of perpetration, and consequences for women and men (Archer, 2000 Bookwala, Frieze, Smith, Ryan, 1992). In this sense, less severe levels of unwanted pursuit or harassment may mirror Johnsons (1995) category of common couple violence, while more severe levels of stalking equal intimate terrorism (Johnson Ferraro, 2000). The debate of whether gender shapes the experience of IPV leads to research comparing the quantity of male and female victims and perpet rators, but also whether experiences are qualitatively different. In other words, are there gender differences in who perpetrators stalk their choice of stalking behaviors, and their motivations?Types of BehaviorsThere is some evidence that women and men engage in slightly different individual stalking behaviors. In both forensic and college student samples in the US and Australia, men are more likely to make in-person contact (e.g., approach behavior Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000 Sinclair Frieze, 2000), to follow their victims or loiter (Purcell et al., 2001 Purcell et al., 2010), and to inflict property damage (Purcell et al., 2010). Women, on the other hand, are more likely to engage in behaviors that do not confront the target face-to-face, such as making unwanted calls or leaving unwanted phone messages (Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000 Purcell et al., 2001 Purcell et al., 2010), spreading rumors, or employing others in harassing the victim (Purcell et al., 2010). The se patterns are not universal, however, as Dutton and Winstead (2006)s US college student sample found that women reported more monitoring and physically hurting their targets than men.In terms of cyberstalking behaviors,. Burke, Wallen, Vail-Smith, and Knox (2011) found that US college student men were more likely than women to report experiencing and engaging in the use of spyware, photos, and cameras to monitor and pursue their partner (e.g., using GPS devices, web cams, and spyware to monitor their partner). In contrast, college student women were more likely to report excessive communication and checking behaviors (e.g., checking cell phone and e-mail histories, making excessive phone calls and e-mails, checking social networking sites, and using their partners passwords).. However, in a study on pursuit behaviors perpetrated on Facebook, Lyndon, Bonds-Raacke, and Cratty (in press) found no gender differences in US college students in the three types of behaviors people perpetr ated on Facebook to harass their ex-partner covert provocation (20-54% e.g., post poetry or lyrics in status updates to taunt ex-partner), venting (7-11% e.g., write inappropriate or mean things about ex-partner on Facebook), and public harassment (3-10% e.g., create a false Facebook profile of ex-partner). Thus far the ambiguity about whether gender differences exist in cyberpursuit appears to mirror the findings regarding unwanted pursuit behaviors for women and men, but we need more research on using technology to stalkcyberstalking, especially with perpetrators.One of the most pressing questions regarding stalking is when it might escalate into physically violent behaviors. Most stalkers, however, are not violent (Purcell, Path, Mullen, 2004 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a) half of all stalking cases involve a threat and just under a third of all stalking cases involve physical violence. Both male and female stalkers are more likely to be violent if they are an ex-intimate, are younger than 30 years of age, have less than a high school education, and have made prior threats (Rosenfeld Harmon, 2002). Other predictors of stalking-related violence include prior criminal convictions (Mullen et al., 1999 Palrea, Zona, Lane, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 1999). Most stalkers, however, are not violent (Purcell, Path, Mullen, 2004 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a) half of all stalking cases involve a threat and just under a third of all stalking cases involve physical violence.Evidence is mixed as to whether there are gender differences in those who are likely to become violent.Some research using US college student samples suggest that female unwanted pursuit perpetrators of unwanted pursuit engage in more mild aggressive stalking behaviors than men (Dutton Winstead, 2006 Williams Frieze, 2005). However, other college student samples reveal no gender differences in perpetration of stalking violence (Haugaard Seri, 2004 Sinclair Frieze, 2002). StillIn contrast, others find that men are more likely than women to threaten their victims (Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000) and to escalate from threats to physical assaults, as reported in both Australian forensic samples (Purcell et al., 2001) and meta-analyses (Spitzberg Cupach, 2007). Former romantic partnersEx-intimate stalkers, who are mostly male, are the most violent compared to other categories of stalkers, a pattern that is consistent across culture and sample type (McEwan, Mullen, MacKenzie, Ogloff, 2009 Meloy, Davis, Lovette, 2001 Mohandie, Meloy, McGowan, Williams, 2006 Palrea, Zona, Lane, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 1999 Sheridan, Blaauw, Davies, 2003 Sheridan Davies, 2001). Given that men are more likely to stalk ex-intimate partners than women (Spitzberg Cupach, 2007 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998), it seems that we should find more male-perpetrated stalking violence.However, other college student samples and forensic samples reveal no gender differences in perpetration of stalking violence (Haugaar d Seri, 2004 Sinclair Frieze, 2002). HoweverFor example, current evidence with forensic samples shows no gender differences in actual stalking cases regarding stalker lethality (Mullen et al., 1999 Purcell et al., 2001 Rosenfeld Lewis, 2005). Specifically, both male and female stalkers can turn violent if they are an ex-intimate, are younger than 30 years of age, have less than a high school education, and have made prior threats (Rosenfeld Harmon, 2002). Evidently, more research is needed to sort out whether gender is a useful predictor of extreme stalking and violence.Motivations and ViolenceWhile there are some differences in how men and women pursue, there also may be some differences in their motivations for doing so. Victims in general population studies often attribute the stalkers motivation to attempts to keep them in a relationship, as well as a desire to control the them (Budd Mattinson, 2000 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a). Mullen and colleagues (1999) have classified thei r samples of clinical and forensic stalkers in Australia into five motivation groups rejected, intimacy-seeker, incompetent suitor, resentful, and predatory types, but have not found consistent gender differences between the groups. Stalking behaviors appear to be motivated most commonly by intimacy (e.g., a desire for reconciliation and feelings of love), with the second most common motive being aggression retaliation (e.g., a desire for revenge Spitzberg Cupach, 2007). In fact, perpetrators often report both motives for reconciliation of a relationship and for revenge (Mullen, Path, Purcell, Stuart, 1999 Spitzberg Cupach, 2007). These Cclinical/forensic rejected stalkers who are motivated by a mix of reconciliation and revenge needs have a higher likelihood of assaulting their victims than other motivation groups (Mullen et al., 2006).Gender differences in motivations for stalking have been noted in juvenile forensic samples. Juvenile female stalkers more likely to be motivated by bullying and retaliation whereas juvenile male stalkers were have been found to be motivated more by rejection and sexual predation (Purcell et al., 2010). In a 2001 study of adult stalkers in Australia, Purcell and colleagues found that women were more likely to target professional acquaintances and less likely to target strangers than men. Nonetheless, the majority of female stalkers were still clearly motivated by the desire to establish intimacy with their target, whereas mens motivations were diverse, spreading across the five categories. Likewise, in Meloys (2003) study of 82 female stalkers from the US, Canada, and Australia, he found the female stalkers were more likely to be motivated by a desire to establish intimacy, whereas men were known to stalk to restore intimacy. Ultimately, Tthere is a large gap in stalking motivation research, particularly using non-forensic samples.Clinical/forensic rejected stalkers who are motivated by a mix of reconciliation and revenge ne eds have a higher likelihood of assaulting their victims than other motivation groups (Mullen et al., 2006). Both male and female stalkers are more likely to be violent if they are an ex-intimate, are younger than 30 years of age, have less than a high school education, and have made prior threats (Rosenfeld Harmon, 2002). Other predictors of stalking-related violence include prior criminal convictions (Mullen et al., 1999 Palrea, Zona, Lane, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 1999). Most stalkers, however, are not violent (Purcell, Path, Mullen, 2004 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a) half of all stalking cases involve a threat and just under a third of all stalking cases involve physical violence.Evidence is mixed as to whether there are gender differences in those who are likely to become violent. Some research using US college student samples suggest that female unwanted pursuit perpetrators engage in more mild aggressive stalking behaviors (Dutton Winstead, 2006 Williams Frieze, 2005). However , other college student samples reveal no gender differences in perpetration of stalking violence (Haugaard Seri, 2004 Sinclair Frieze, 2002). Still others find that men are more likely than women to threaten their victims (Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2000) and to escalate from threats to physical assaults, as reported in both Australian forensic samples (Purcell et al., 2001) and meta-analyses (Spitzberg Cupach, 2007). Former romantic partners are the most violent compared to other categories of stalkers, a pattern that is consistent across culture and sample type (McEwan, Mullen, MacKenzie, Ogloff, 2009 Meloy, Davis, Lovette, 2001 Mohandie, Meloy, McGowan, Williams, 2006 Palrea, Zona, Lane, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, 1999 Sheridan, Blaauw, Davies, 2003 Sheridan Davies, 2001). Given that men are more likely to stalk ex-intimate partners than women (Spitzberg Cupach, 2007 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998), it seems that we should find more male-perpetrated stalking violence. However , current evidence with forensic samples shows no gender differences in actual stalking cases regarding stalker lethality (Mullen et al., 1999 Purcell et al., 2001 Rosenfeld Lewis, 2005).Single surveys of Ccollege student samples ofabout unwanted pursuit and obsessive relational intrusion are the least likely to find fewgender differences in perpetration rates. However, meta-analyses and US and UK general population studies find that men are more likely to be stalking perpetrators than women, regardless of the victims gender (Baum et al., 2009 Budd Mattinson, 2000 Spitzberg, 2002 Tjaden Thoennes, 1998a).While the size of this gender difference varies, it is consistent across methodologies (Spitzberg Cupach, 2003). There are some gender differences in the types of stalking and cyberstalking perpetrationbehaviors e.g., men being more direct and women more indirect and in pursuers motives women being predominantly motivated by intimacy-seeking and men having a broader array of m otives. However, we need more research on perpetration to better understand if gender is an important predictor to consider, especially with regard to the likelihood of escalation. with a variety of samples and with better means of differentiating unwanted pursuit from stalking.Perceptions of stalkingAs attention to the problem of stalking has increased, so has public opinion been shaped. However, there is not a true consensus in these opinions. Rather, people vary in how much they understand about stalking. It can be unclear when the line between normal relational pursuit and stalking is crossed (Dunn, 1999 Emerson et al., 1998 Lee, 1998 Sinclair Frieze, 2000, 2005). Perceptions can also diverge regarding multiple issues including 1) which behaviors qualify as stalking, 2) how many behavior are enough to represent a course of conduct, 3) is stalking really serious, 4) what perpetrator intent may have been, 5) whether and how we should incorporate victim fear levels to judge stalki ng severity, and 6) what is real stalking (e.g., stranger vs. acquaintance stalking). Within each of these issues, gender may influence the perceptions people hold, both lay persons and legal decision-makers.Stalking in the Eye of the Beholder The Role of Perceiver GenderThe literature is still mixed as to whether men and women differ in judgments to use a label of stalking. Some researchers report that men and women do not differ in terms of which behaviors qualify as stalking (e.g., Kinkade, Burns, Fuentes, 2005 Phillips et al., 2004, in Experiment 1 Sheridan Davies, 2001 Sheridan, Davies, Boon, 2001 Sheridan et al., 2002 Sheridan, Gillet, Davies, Blaauw, Patel, 2003). Others have found